chessboard is set up and study the pieces and how they are used, you will realize that chess is a miniature history of medieval times. The six different chess pieces on the board represent a cross section of medieval life with its many ceremonies, grandeur and wars. Chess was played many centuries ago in China, India and Persia, but theories vary about its specific country of origin. Through a series of invasions, chess quickly spread throughout all of Europe.Europeans gave chess pieces the names we know today, to reflect the way they lived. The names represent the way in which both ordinary people and persons of rank lived their lives.
The pawns on the chessboard represent serfs, or laborers. There are more of them than any other piece on the board, and often they are sacrificed to save the more valuable pieces. In medieval times, serfs were considered no more than property of landowners, or chattel. Life was brutally hard for serfs during this era of history. They worked hard and died young. They were often left unprotected while wars raged around them. They could be traded, used as a diversion, or even sacrificed to allow landowners to escape harm. The castle piece on a chessboard is the home, or the refuge, just as it was a home in medieval times.
The knight on a chessboard represents the professional soldier of medieval times, whose jobit was to protect persons of rank, and there are two of them per each side in a game of chess.Knights in chess are more important than pawns but less important than bishops, kings, orqueens. Their purpose in the game of chess is to protect the more important pieces, and they can be sacrificed to save those pieces just as pawns can. There is a bishop in the game of chess, who represents the church. The church was a rich and mighty force in medieval times, and religion played a large part in daily life. It is no wonder that a figure that represented the concept of religion found its way into the game. A bishop was the title for a priest in the Catholic Church who had risen through the ranks to a more powerful position.
In the game of chess, there are two bishops on each side. The queen is the only piece on the board during a chess game that represents a woman, and she is the most powerful piece of the game. In chess, there is only one queen on each side. Many people do not realize that queens in medieval times often held a powerful, yet precarious, position. The king was often guided by her advice, and in many cases the queen played games of intrigue at court. Kings, however, could set their wives aside or even imprison them in nunneries with the approval ofthe church (and without the queen’s approval), and many women schemed merely to hold their place at court.
Thursday, May 21, 2009
Pollution
Pollution is not a new phenomenon. In fact, pollution has been a problem since the appearance of our earliest ancestors (Markham, 1994). Increasing human populations have opened the door to more bacteria and disease. During the Middle Ages, diseases such as cholera and typhoid fever broke out all across Europe. These epidemics were directly related to unsanitary conditions caused by human and animal wastes, and garbage. In 1347, the bacterium Yersinia pestis, carried by rats and spread by fleas, caused the "Black Death" -- an outbreak of bubonic plague. Unsanitary conditions provided the perfect environment for the deadly bacteria to flourish.
By the 1800s, people began to understand that unsanitary living conditions and water contamination contributed to disease epidemics. This new awareness prompted major cities to take measures to control waste and garbage. In the mid-1850s, Chicago built the first major sewage system in the United States to treat wastewater. Soon, many other U.S. cities followed Chicago's lead (Merchant, 2002).
Improved sanitary conditions and less disease were important factors in making cities healthier places to live, and helped encourage people to move to urban areas. As cities became more populated towards the end of the 19th century, industrialized cities across Europe and the United States were experiencing a new kind of pollution: waste from industries and factories. In 1897, a report to the Royal Commission on River Pollution detailed the gross industrial contamination of the Tawe River in Wales, noting that it was polluted by "alkali works, copper works, sulfuric acid liquid, sulfate of iron from tin-plate works, and by slag, cinders and small coal" (Markham, 1994).
Water and air pollution in U.S. urban areas continued to increase well into the 20th century. The Cuyahoga River in Cleveland, Ohio, which flows into Lake Erie, became so polluted that the water erupted into flames! The first fire occurred in 1936, when a spark from a blowtorch ignited floating debris and oils. Over the next 30 years, the river caught fire several more times.
By the 1800s, people began to understand that unsanitary living conditions and water contamination contributed to disease epidemics. This new awareness prompted major cities to take measures to control waste and garbage. In the mid-1850s, Chicago built the first major sewage system in the United States to treat wastewater. Soon, many other U.S. cities followed Chicago's lead (Merchant, 2002).
Improved sanitary conditions and less disease were important factors in making cities healthier places to live, and helped encourage people to move to urban areas. As cities became more populated towards the end of the 19th century, industrialized cities across Europe and the United States were experiencing a new kind of pollution: waste from industries and factories. In 1897, a report to the Royal Commission on River Pollution detailed the gross industrial contamination of the Tawe River in Wales, noting that it was polluted by "alkali works, copper works, sulfuric acid liquid, sulfate of iron from tin-plate works, and by slag, cinders and small coal" (Markham, 1994).
Water and air pollution in U.S. urban areas continued to increase well into the 20th century. The Cuyahoga River in Cleveland, Ohio, which flows into Lake Erie, became so polluted that the water erupted into flames! The first fire occurred in 1936, when a spark from a blowtorch ignited floating debris and oils. Over the next 30 years, the river caught fire several more times.
Olympics
The origin of the Ancient Olympics is shrouded in mystery and legend. One of the most popular myths identifies Heracles and his father Zeus as the progenitors of the Games According to legend, it was Heracles who first called the Games "Olympic" and established the custom of holding them every four years. A legend persists that after Heracles completed his he built the as an honor to Zeus. Following its completion, he walked in a straight line for 200 steps and called this distance "stadium, "stage" which later became a unit of distance.
Another myth associates the first Games with the ancient Greek concept of Olympic truce (ἐκεχειρία, ekecheiria)The most widely accepted date for the inception of the Ancient Olympics is 776 BC; this is based on inscriptions, found at Olympia, of the winners of a footrace held every four years starting in 776 BC. The Ancient Games featured running events, a pentathlon (consisting of a jumping event, discus and javelin throws, a foot race and wrestling), boxing, wrestling, and equestrian events Tradition has it that, a cook from the city of Elis, was the first Olympic champion.
The Olympics were of fundamental religious importance, featuring sporting events alongside ritual sacrifices honoring both Zeus (whose famous statue by Phidias stood in his temple at Olympia) and Pelops, divine hero and mythical king of Olympia. Pelops was famous for his chariot race with The winners of the events were admired and immortalized in poems and statues. The Games were held every four years, and this period, known as an Olympiad, was used by Greeks as one of their units of time measurement.
The Games were part of a cycle known as the Panhellenic Games, which included the the Nemean Games, and the Isthmian Games. The Olympic Games reached their zenith in the 6th and 5th centuries BC, but then gradually declined in importance as the Romans gained power and influence in Greece. There is no consensus on when the Games officially ended, the most common-held date is 393 AD, when the emperor Theodosius I declared that all pagan cults and practices be eliminated. Another date cited is 426 AD, when his successor Theodosius II ordered the destruction of all Greek temples. After the demise of the Olympics, they were not held again until the late 19th century.
Another myth associates the first Games with the ancient Greek concept of Olympic truce (ἐκεχειρία, ekecheiria)The most widely accepted date for the inception of the Ancient Olympics is 776 BC; this is based on inscriptions, found at Olympia, of the winners of a footrace held every four years starting in 776 BC. The Ancient Games featured running events, a pentathlon (consisting of a jumping event, discus and javelin throws, a foot race and wrestling), boxing, wrestling, and equestrian events Tradition has it that, a cook from the city of Elis, was the first Olympic champion.
The Olympics were of fundamental religious importance, featuring sporting events alongside ritual sacrifices honoring both Zeus (whose famous statue by Phidias stood in his temple at Olympia) and Pelops, divine hero and mythical king of Olympia. Pelops was famous for his chariot race with The winners of the events were admired and immortalized in poems and statues. The Games were held every four years, and this period, known as an Olympiad, was used by Greeks as one of their units of time measurement.
The Games were part of a cycle known as the Panhellenic Games, which included the the Nemean Games, and the Isthmian Games. The Olympic Games reached their zenith in the 6th and 5th centuries BC, but then gradually declined in importance as the Romans gained power and influence in Greece. There is no consensus on when the Games officially ended, the most common-held date is 393 AD, when the emperor Theodosius I declared that all pagan cults and practices be eliminated. Another date cited is 426 AD, when his successor Theodosius II ordered the destruction of all Greek temples. After the demise of the Olympics, they were not held again until the late 19th century.
GOLF
The origin of golf is unclear and open to debate however the most accepted golf history theory is that golf (as practised today) originated from Scotland in the 12th century, with shepherds knocking stones into rabbit holes in the place where the famous Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St. Andrews now sits. Scholars have claimed references to a form of golf from hieroglyphs found on stone tablets dating to ancient Egyptian Pharaohs a game consisting of driving a ball with a stick into holes in the ground, was first mentioned.
Here they played a game with a stick and leather ball. Whomever hit the ball into a target several hundreds of metres away the most number of times, won. The Scottish game of goulf (variously spelled) was mentioned in two 15th century laws prohibiting its play. Some scholars have suggested that this refers to another game, which is more akin to than golf. There are also reports of even earlier accounts of a golf like game from continental Europe. However, these earlier games are more accurately viewed as ancestors of golf, and the modern game as we understand it today originated and developed in Scotland.
The earliest permanent golf course originated there, as did the very first written rules, the establishment of the 18-hole course, and the first golf club memberships. The first formalized tournament structures also emerged there and competitions were arranged between different Scottish cities. Over time, the modern game spread to England and the rest of the world. The oldest playing golf course in the world is The Musselburgh Old Links Golf Course. Evidence has shown that golf was played here in 1672 although Mary, Queen of Scots reputedly played there in 1567. In 1646 King Charles I of England, whilst held captive by the Scots in Newcastle-upon-Tyne, was reported to entertain himself by playing golf in Shieldfield.
As stated, golf courses have not always had eighteen holes. The St Andrews Links occupy a narrow strip of land along the sea. As early as the 15th century, golfers at St Andrews, in Fife, established a customary route through the undulating terrain, playing to holes whose locations were dictated by topography. The course that emerged featured eleven holes, laid out end to end from the clubhouse to the far end of the property. One played the holes out, turned around, and played the holes in, for a total of 22 holes. In 1764, several of the holes were deemed too short, and were therefore combined. The number was thereby reduced from 11 to nine, so that a complete round of the links comprised 18 holes. Due to the status of St Andrews as the golf capital, all other courses chose to follow suit and the 18-hole course remains the standard today.
Here they played a game with a stick and leather ball. Whomever hit the ball into a target several hundreds of metres away the most number of times, won. The Scottish game of goulf (variously spelled) was mentioned in two 15th century laws prohibiting its play. Some scholars have suggested that this refers to another game, which is more akin to than golf. There are also reports of even earlier accounts of a golf like game from continental Europe. However, these earlier games are more accurately viewed as ancestors of golf, and the modern game as we understand it today originated and developed in Scotland.
The earliest permanent golf course originated there, as did the very first written rules, the establishment of the 18-hole course, and the first golf club memberships. The first formalized tournament structures also emerged there and competitions were arranged between different Scottish cities. Over time, the modern game spread to England and the rest of the world. The oldest playing golf course in the world is The Musselburgh Old Links Golf Course. Evidence has shown that golf was played here in 1672 although Mary, Queen of Scots reputedly played there in 1567. In 1646 King Charles I of England, whilst held captive by the Scots in Newcastle-upon-Tyne, was reported to entertain himself by playing golf in Shieldfield.
As stated, golf courses have not always had eighteen holes. The St Andrews Links occupy a narrow strip of land along the sea. As early as the 15th century, golfers at St Andrews, in Fife, established a customary route through the undulating terrain, playing to holes whose locations were dictated by topography. The course that emerged featured eleven holes, laid out end to end from the clubhouse to the far end of the property. One played the holes out, turned around, and played the holes in, for a total of 22 holes. In 1764, several of the holes were deemed too short, and were therefore combined. The number was thereby reduced from 11 to nine, so that a complete round of the links comprised 18 holes. Due to the status of St Andrews as the golf capital, all other courses chose to follow suit and the 18-hole course remains the standard today.
marathon
The name marathon comes from the legend of Pheidippides, a Greek messenger. The legend states that he was sent from the town of Marathon to Athens to announce that the Persians had been defeated in the Battle of Marathon. It is said that he ran the entire distance without stopping and burst into the assembly, exclaiming "Νενικήκαμεν" (Nenikékamen, 'We have won.') before collapsing and dying The account of the run from Marathon to Athens first appears On the Glory of Athens in the 1st century AD who quotes from lost work, giving the runner's name as either Thersipus of Erchius or Eucles. Lucian of Samosata (2nd century AD) also gives the story but names the runner Philippides (not Pheidippides).
There is debate about the historical accuracy of this legend The Greek historian Herodotus, the main source for the Greco-Persian Wars, mentions Pheidippides as the messenger who ran from Athens to Sparta asking for help, and then ran back, a distance of over 240 kilometres each way. In some Herodotus manuscripts the name of the runner between Athens and Sparta is given as Philippides. Herodotus makes no mention of a messenger sent from Marathon to Athens, and relates that the main part of the Athenian army, having already fought and won the grueling battle, and fearing a naval raid by the Persian fleet against an undefended Athens, marched quickly back from the battle to Athens, arriving the same day.
In 1876, Robert Browning wrote the poem "Pheidippides". Browning's poem, his composite story, became part of late-19th century popular culture and was accepted as a historic legend Mount stands between Marathon and Athens, which means that, actually made his famous run after the battle, he had to run around the mountain, either from the north or from the south. The latter and most obvious route matches almost exactly the modern Marathon-Athens highway, which follows the lay of the land southwards from Marathon Bay and along the coast, then a gentle but protracted uphill westwards towards the eastern approach to Athens, between the foothills of Mounts Hymettus and and then mildly downhill to Athens proper.
This route is approximately 42 kilometers and set the standard for the distance as run in the modern age. However there have been suggestions that Pheidippides might have followed another route: a westward climb along the eastern and northern slopes of Mount Penteli to the pass of Dionysos, and then a straight southward downhill path to Athens. This route is considerably shorter, some 35 kilometers, but features a very steep initial climb of more than 5 kilometers.
There is debate about the historical accuracy of this legend The Greek historian Herodotus, the main source for the Greco-Persian Wars, mentions Pheidippides as the messenger who ran from Athens to Sparta asking for help, and then ran back, a distance of over 240 kilometres each way. In some Herodotus manuscripts the name of the runner between Athens and Sparta is given as Philippides. Herodotus makes no mention of a messenger sent from Marathon to Athens, and relates that the main part of the Athenian army, having already fought and won the grueling battle, and fearing a naval raid by the Persian fleet against an undefended Athens, marched quickly back from the battle to Athens, arriving the same day.
In 1876, Robert Browning wrote the poem "Pheidippides". Browning's poem, his composite story, became part of late-19th century popular culture and was accepted as a historic legend Mount stands between Marathon and Athens, which means that, actually made his famous run after the battle, he had to run around the mountain, either from the north or from the south. The latter and most obvious route matches almost exactly the modern Marathon-Athens highway, which follows the lay of the land southwards from Marathon Bay and along the coast, then a gentle but protracted uphill westwards towards the eastern approach to Athens, between the foothills of Mounts Hymettus and and then mildly downhill to Athens proper.
This route is approximately 42 kilometers and set the standard for the distance as run in the modern age. However there have been suggestions that Pheidippides might have followed another route: a westward climb along the eastern and northern slopes of Mount Penteli to the pass of Dionysos, and then a straight southward downhill path to Athens. This route is considerably shorter, some 35 kilometers, but features a very steep initial climb of more than 5 kilometers.
The Olympic Games
The Olympic Games are an international event of summer and winter sports, in which thousands of athletes compete in a wide variety of events. The Games are currently held every two years, Winter Olympic Games alternating. Originally, the ancient Olympic Games were held in Olympia, Greece, from the 8th century BC to the 5th century AD. In the late 19th century, Baron Pierre de Coubertin was inspired by Olympic festivals to revive the Games. For this purpose, he founded the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1894, and two years later, the modern Olympic Games were established in Athens. The IOC has since become the governing body of the Olympic Movement, whose structure and actions are defined by the Olympic Charter.
The evolution of the Olympic Movement during the 20th century forced the IOC to adapt the Games to the world's changing social circumstances. Some of these adjustments included the creation of the Winter Games for ice and snow sports, for athletes with physical disabilities, and the Youth Olympic Games for teenage athletes. The IOC also had to accommodate the Games to the varying economical, political, and technological realities of the 20th century. As a result, the Olympics shifted away from pure amateurism, as envisioned by Coubertin, to allow participation of professional athletes.
The Olympic Movement currently comprises international sports federations (IFs), National Olympic Committees (NOCs), and organizing committees for each specific Olympic Games. As the decision-making body, the IOC is responsible for choosing the host city for each Olympic Games. The host city is responsible for organizing and funding a celebration of the Games consistent with the Olympic Charter. The Olympic program, consisting of the sports to be contested at each Olympic Games, is also determined by the IOC. The celebration of the Games encompasses many rituals and symbols, such as the Olympic flag and torch, as well as the opening and closing ceremonies.
There are over 13,000 athletes that compete at the Summer and Winter Olympics in 33 different sports and nearly 400 events. The first, second, and third place finishers in each event receive gold, silver or bronze Olympic medals, respectively.The Games have grown in scale to the point that nearly every nation is represented. Such growth has created numerous challenges, including boycotts, doping, and terrorism. Every two years, the Olympics and its media exposure provide unknown athletes with the chance to attain national, and in particular cases, international fame
The evolution of the Olympic Movement during the 20th century forced the IOC to adapt the Games to the world's changing social circumstances. Some of these adjustments included the creation of the Winter Games for ice and snow sports, for athletes with physical disabilities, and the Youth Olympic Games for teenage athletes. The IOC also had to accommodate the Games to the varying economical, political, and technological realities of the 20th century. As a result, the Olympics shifted away from pure amateurism, as envisioned by Coubertin, to allow participation of professional athletes.
The Olympic Movement currently comprises international sports federations (IFs), National Olympic Committees (NOCs), and organizing committees for each specific Olympic Games. As the decision-making body, the IOC is responsible for choosing the host city for each Olympic Games. The host city is responsible for organizing and funding a celebration of the Games consistent with the Olympic Charter. The Olympic program, consisting of the sports to be contested at each Olympic Games, is also determined by the IOC. The celebration of the Games encompasses many rituals and symbols, such as the Olympic flag and torch, as well as the opening and closing ceremonies.
There are over 13,000 athletes that compete at the Summer and Winter Olympics in 33 different sports and nearly 400 events. The first, second, and third place finishers in each event receive gold, silver or bronze Olympic medals, respectively.The Games have grown in scale to the point that nearly every nation is represented. Such growth has created numerous challenges, including boycotts, doping, and terrorism. Every two years, the Olympics and its media exposure provide unknown athletes with the chance to attain national, and in particular cases, international fame
ship
Henry VIII came to the throne on the 22nd of April 1509, the unchallenged successor to his father, Henry VII. The two men were quite different in temperament: the older Henry was a cool, cautious, pragmatic man who had restored peace and stability to a country wracked by the War of the Roses. His son, only 18 years old when he took control, was vigorous, bellicose, well-educated, and determined to restore England to her former medieval glory. Compared to Spain and the Empire on one hand, and France on the other, England had neither the manpower nor the revenue to engage in large scale warfare on the continent. Fortunately for England, the main area of rivalry between the Hapsburgs and the Valois was Italy, with Northern Europe generally relegated to a side-show. Despite this and despite the relatively small size of the Tudor military forces, an alliance with England was of use to both France and the Empire.
If England allied with the Hapsburgs against France, the whole of the northern coast of France was open to attack. This drew French forces away from other areas and could help support an attack into France from the Hapsburg Netherlands. Alliance with France on the other hand could cut the maritime link between Spain and the Netherlands and devastate the trading prosperity of the latter area. England was more inclined to ally with the Empire and Spain than with the French; France was England's historic enemy, the Kings of England had a claim to the French crown, and England still held Calais. The tendency to ally with the Hapsburgs was strengthened by Henry VIII's marriage to Catherine of Aragon in 1509, and by the fact that the Netherlands were the principal market for the important English cloth and wool trade.
The European situation on Henry VIII's accession to the throne in 1509 was, however, extremely unusual. The major European powers, France, the Empire, Spain and the Papacy, had formed the League of Cambrai with the aim of stripping Venice of her mainland possessions. With the continental powers absorbed in Italy, England was at peace with all her neighbours.
Upon his accession in 1509, Henry VIII inherited the nucleus of a useful navy from his father in the shape of five ships, including the large carracks, the Regent and the Sovereign. These ships could be augmented by hiring or buying merchant vessels, both domestic and foreign. Such vessels were turned into lightly armed warships by equipping them with archers and a few guns. Other ships were provided by the nobility.
If England allied with the Hapsburgs against France, the whole of the northern coast of France was open to attack. This drew French forces away from other areas and could help support an attack into France from the Hapsburg Netherlands. Alliance with France on the other hand could cut the maritime link between Spain and the Netherlands and devastate the trading prosperity of the latter area. England was more inclined to ally with the Empire and Spain than with the French; France was England's historic enemy, the Kings of England had a claim to the French crown, and England still held Calais. The tendency to ally with the Hapsburgs was strengthened by Henry VIII's marriage to Catherine of Aragon in 1509, and by the fact that the Netherlands were the principal market for the important English cloth and wool trade.
The European situation on Henry VIII's accession to the throne in 1509 was, however, extremely unusual. The major European powers, France, the Empire, Spain and the Papacy, had formed the League of Cambrai with the aim of stripping Venice of her mainland possessions. With the continental powers absorbed in Italy, England was at peace with all her neighbours.
Upon his accession in 1509, Henry VIII inherited the nucleus of a useful navy from his father in the shape of five ships, including the large carracks, the Regent and the Sovereign. These ships could be augmented by hiring or buying merchant vessels, both domestic and foreign. Such vessels were turned into lightly armed warships by equipping them with archers and a few guns. Other ships were provided by the nobility.
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